I. Foundational Era: Unity and Cultural Identity

A. Early Dynasties and State Formation

· Xia Dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BCE): Marked by agricultural surplus and early urbanization (e.g., Erlitou遗址), laying the groundwork for centralized rule.

· Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE): First recorded Chinese dynasty with oracle bone script (甲骨文) and bronze technology, exemplifying early bureaucratic governance.

· Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE): Established the Mandate of Heaven (天命) ideology, which legitimized rulership through moral excellence. Confucianism and Legalism emerged as competing political philosophies.

B. Imperial Era: Expansion and Integration

· Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE): Unified China under Qin Shi Huang; standardized systems (language, currency, weights) and initiated the Great Wall to defend borders.

· Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE): Pioneered the Silk Road trade network, introducing Buddhism and papermaking (东汉蔡伦改进). The civil service examination system (科举制) began to shape meritocratic governance.

· Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE): A cosmopolitan “golden age” with Chang’an (modern Xi’an) as a global hub for culture, commerce, and diplomacy.

II. Modern Transformation: Challenges and Resilience

A. Decline and Foreign Intervention

· Opium Wars (1839–1860): Forced opening of ports under unequal treaties, marking the start of the “Century of Humiliation.”

· Self-Strengthening Movements: Qing Dynasty attempts to adopt Western technology (e.g., Jiangnan Arsenal) failed to reverse decline.

B. Republican Era and Revolution

· 1911 Revolution: Overthrew the Qing Dynasty, establishing the Republic of China (ROC). Sun Yat-sen’s “Three Principles of the People” (民族、民权、民生) emphasized nationalism and modernization.

· Chinese Communist Party (CCP): Founded in 1921; gained momentum during the Long March (1934–1936) and WWII resistance against Japan (1937–1945).

III. Socialist Construction and Economic Reform

A. Maoist Era (1949–1978)

· Founding of the PRC (1949): Land reforms redistributed property to peasants; campaigns like the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) aimed for rapid industrialization but caused famine.

· Cultural Revolution (1966–1976): Political动荡 prioritized ideological purity over economic growth.

B. Deng Xiaoping’s Reforms (1978–1992)

· Economic Liberalization: Shift from centrally planned to market-oriented policies; establishment of Special Economic Zones (e.g., Shenzhen) to attract foreign investment.

· GDP Growth Miracle: Average annual GDP growth of ~9.5% (1978–2012), lifting hundreds of millions out of poverty.

IV. Rise as a Global Power (2000s–2024)

A. Economic and Technological Leadership

· World Trade Organization (WTO) Accession (2001): Accelerated integration into the global economy.

· Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): Ambitious infrastructure project spanning Asia, Europe, Africa (投资超$1 trillion).

· Tech Innovations: Companies like Huawei, Alibaba, and Tencent dominate global tech sectors.

B. Political and Global Influence

· Xi Jinping’s Leadership: Emphasis on “Xi Jinping Thought”; anti-corruption campaigns; military modernization.

· Global Governance: Active role in UN, climate agreements (Paris Accord), and COVID-19 response.

V. Challenges and Future Directions

· Demographic Shifts: Aging population and urban-rural inequality.

· Environmental Sustainability: Transition to renewable energy (目标2060碳中和).

· Relations with the West: Trade tensions, human rights debates, and geopolitical competition.